Details: In the third step of glycolysis, fructose-6-phosphate is converted to fructose- 1,6-bisphosphate (FBP).Similar to the reaction that occurs in step 1 of glycolysis, a second molecule of ATP provides the phosphate group that is added on … Select molecules that are produced during the second half (last 5 steps) of glycolysis. c. utilizes fat as its primary energy source. Steps: 1. This is first stage of respiration, which includes a sequence of chemical reactions through which glucose is incompletely oxidized to yield the 3-carbon compound pyruvic acid (Glycolysis = lysis or splitting of glucose). Here, in this further reaction, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is turned into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate after reacting properly. In steps 4 and 5, aldolase and triose phosphate isomerase effectively convert one molecule of fructose 1,6-bisphosphate into two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. Types of Glycolysis. Contrast this result with the amount of energy obtained when glucose is completely oxidized to carbon dioxide and water through glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation as summarized in Table \(\PageIndex{1}\). The net production of ATP is thus 2 mol for each mole of glucose converted to lactate or ethanol. Reactions that occur in glycolysis can all be described in terms of the chemical changes that occur within each. Cellular location of the first and second stage process One pyruvate has 3 carbons; There are 2 pyruvates in every glucose molecule; 2. The second substrate-level phosphorylation occurs by dephosphorylating phosphoenolpyruvate, catalyzed by pyruvate kinase, producing pyruvate and ATP. It cleaves fructose 1,6-biphosphate to get a 3-carbon molecule. One pyruvate has 3 carbons; There are 2 pyruvates in every glucose molecule; 2. Final product is pyruvate along with the production of Eight ATP molecules. In comparison, automobiles are only about 20%–25% efficient in using the energy released by the combustion of gasoline. The reaction mechanism is very similar to the reaction mechanism of step 2. All these reactions in this step at last result in the production of 3-phosphoglycerate. + ADP \xrightarrow{pyruvate\: kinase} pyruvate + ATP}\), \(\mathrm{dihydroxyacetone\: phosphate \xrightarrow{?} A more efficient transport system is found in liver, heart, and kidney cells where the formation of one cytoplasmic NADH molecule results in the formation of one mitochondrial NADH molecule, which leads to the formation of 2.5–3 molecules of ATP.The total amount of energy conserved in the aerobic catabolism of glucose in the liver is as follows: \[\mathrm{\dfrac{38\times7.4\: kcal}{670\: kcal}\times100=42\%}\]. The monosaccharide glucose is broken down through a series of enzyme-catalyzed reactions known as glycolysis. In this reaction, there involves a change of carbon-oxygen bond. However, in the absence of oxygen (that is, under anaerobic conditions), the fate of pyruvate is different in different organisms. The other produced product, which is known as Dihydroxyacetone phosphate further transforms itself into glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate by triosephosphate isomerase as it is a catalyst. More ATP can be formed from the breakdown of glucose when oxygen is present. The net energy release in glycolysis is a result of two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate entering the second half of glycolysis where they are converted to pyruvic acid. ... the second majoy stage in cellular respiration. Describe the function of glycolysis and identify its major products. Newer second-generation drugs, such as glyburide, do as well, but they also increase the sensitivity of cell receptors to insulin. Thus, pyruvate kinase is a rate-limiting enzyme for glycolysis. The transfer of phosphate group from carboxylic group 3-phosphoglyceroyl phosphate to ADP. It dehydrates 2-phosphoglycerate by removing a water group of the existing product and thus reduces it to Phosphoenolpyruvate. the electron transport chain and oxidative phosphorylation, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate + dihydroxyacetone phosphate, Pyruvate is reduced to lactate, and NADH is reoxidized to NAD, Pyruvate is converted to ethanol and carbon dioxide, and NADH is reoxidized to NAD. The reaction produces a lot of free energy which is released as heat later. In glycolysis, a molecule of glucose is degraded in a series of enzyme … Glucose-6-phosphate is an important component of the junction of many metabolic pathways. As the name of the enzyme suggests, this reaction involves an isomerization reaction. The first stage of cellular respiration, glycolysis, takes place in the cytoplasm of the cell. b. occurs only in animal cells because plants carry on photosynthesis. In this situation, the entire glycolysis pathway will proceed, but only two ATP molecules will be made in the second half. SEE MORE: Reactants Products and Equation of Glycolysis Process. Much of this energy is conserved by the coupled phosphorylation of four molecules of ADP to ATP. Now in aerobic glycolysis, Oxidation happens when pyruvate goes to the citric acid cycle. 2 production occurs _____. Stage I consists of the first five steps of the glycolysis process. Figure: Glycolysis 10 steps. There are three main stages of cellular respiration: glycolysis, the citric acid … This route lowers the yield of ATP to 1.5–2 molecules of ATP, rather than the usual 2.5–3 molecules. The kinase phosphofructokinase uses another ATP molecule to transfer a phosphate group to F6P … Thus, in glycolysis dephosphorylation results in the production of 4 ATP. The net energy yield from anaerobic glucose metabolism can readily be calculated in moles of ATP. The reaction is facilitated with the help of an enzyme which is known as pyruvate kinase. The reaction proceeds when enol pyruvate changes its arrangement at a quick pace and thus takes a new form. Those who require medication may use oral antidiabetic drugs that stimulate the islet cells to secrete insulin. d. occurs at the same rate throughout all cells of the body. The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction is known as fructose diphosphate aldolase, often called as simple aldolase. Now, in the glycolytic pathway, a 3-carbon molecule is ensured. This step is very much similar to the first step where ATP is turned into ADP and Phospholyration is involved too. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate’aldehyde group is oxidized to a carboxylic acid anhydride with phosphoric acid. The last step in glycolysis will not occur if pyruvate kinase, the enzyme that catalyzes the formation of pyruvate, is not available in sufficient quantities. The pyruvate at first comes in the enol form then, after the reaction, it transforms itself into keto form. It is the only one reaction in the total glycolytic pathway where NAD+ is converted to NADH. Note the indication in the table that a variable amount of ATP is synthesized, depending on the tissue, from the NADH formed in the cytoplasm during glycolysis. ATP, pyruvate ... During the priming stage of glycolysis, two reactions involve the transfer of phosphates to prime glucose, and thus two molecules of which of the following are required to supply the phosphates? These reactions are accelerated by the enzyme phosphoglycerate kinase and thus producing ATP. These possible fates of pyruvate are summarized in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\). There are two types of glycolysis. Researchers are still trying to find out why. The enzyme phosphoglycerate mutase which is a dimer of identical subunits helps to accelerate this reaction with the help of Magnesium as co-factor to shield the negative charges as Mg^2+ is a metal ion. In Type 1 diabetes, insulin-producing cells of the pancreas are destroyed by the body’s immune system. Glycolysis steps. The pathway is structured so that the product of one enzyme-catalyzed reaction becomes the substrate of the next. Energy is also conserved in the payoff phase in the formation of two molecules of the electron carrier NADH per molecule of glucose. This step is considered as the committed step in the process of glycolysis due to its reaction and it’s a contribution to metabolism rather than storing glucose and then transforming it into any other compound. Image Source: Quizlet Inc. During glycolysis, a single … “Hexokinase” is an enzyme that catalyzes different ring structures like glucose 6 carbon. There is a net production of two molecules of ATP. As indicated earlier, the 58% of released energy that is not conserved enters the surroundings (that is, the cell) as heat that helps to maintain body temperature. glyceraldehyde\: 3\textrm{-phosphate}}\), \(\mathrm{glucose + ATP \xrightarrow{hexokinase} \, ? Aerobic Glycolysis: From the word aerobic, meaning with the presence of oxygen. This change from phosphoglucose to phosphofructose allows the eventual split of the sugar into two three-carbon molecules. An enzyme, named “photofructokinases” catalyzes the reaction to facilitate its activities. 1. The individual reactions in glycolysis were determined during the first part of the 20th century. The last five reactions of glycolysis constitute phase II. This step is associated with the transfer of a high-energy phosphate group of 3-phospoglycerol phosphate’s carboxylic group. The breakdown of the six-carbon glucose into two molecules of the three-carbon pyruvate occurs in 10 steps, the first 5 of which constitute the preparatory phase and the last 5 0f these steps are called payoff phase or energy-conserving stage. In the reaction, NAD+ is reduced to reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NADH), and 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (BPG) is formed. It requires a catalyst and it’s co-factor to facilitate the reaction. What coenzyme is needed as an oxidizing agent in glycolysis? Just like the name of both the enzyme and title states, it helps the produced glucose in the Isomerization reaction or to rearrange itself. These types of reactions can also be called as substrate-level phosphorylations. The enzymes of glycolysis in a eukaryotic cell are located in the: A. intermembrane space B. plasma membrane C. cytosol For more information contact us at info@libretexts.org or check out our status page at https://status.libretexts.org. The enzyme, enolase, promotes the removal of a water molecule in a reaction that was reversible to yield the required product. That is, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. ‘2-phosphoglycerate’. This isomerization reaction works reversibly. }\), hydrolysis of a high-energy phosphate compound. In the last five reactions—phase II—each glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is converted into pyruvate, and ATP is generated. This is a more important reaction since it helps in metabolism rather than storing or converting glucose into another form. The second step of glycolysis involves the conversion of glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate (F6P). The mechanism of the enzyme photofructokinases accelerates when the cell lacks ATP. 1) Where does glycolysis occur in the cell? Just like a similar reaction occurs in step 2 in this process of glycolysis reactions. Type 2 diabetics usually produce sufficient amounts of insulin, but either the insulin-producing cells in the pancreas do not release enough of it, or it is not used properly because of defective insulin receptors or a lack of insulin receptors on the target cells. From the reactions in Exercises 1 and 2, select the equation(s) by number and letter in which each type of reaction occurs. c) The cytoplasm . This reaction is irreversible in various cellular conditions. Thus, the process of glycolysis ends here, in the way explained above. Thus, the preparatory phase of glycolysis came to an end due to this reaction and this very step. In the reaction, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate and ADP in the presence of phosphoglycerate kinase as the required enzyme and with co-factor Magnesium produces 3-phosphoglycerate and ATP. a) The cell membrane . So, firstly, the reaction of 3-phosphoglycerate and phosphoenzyme results in the production of free enzyme and 2,3-diphosphoglycerate which at last produces at 2-phosphoglycerate. In the first 5 reactions—phase I—glucose is broken down into two molecules of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. The function of glucokinase is to remove glucose from the blood, to store glucose as glycogen in the liver for further purposes to be used in the process. https://getyournotes.blogspot.com/2011/10/stages-of-glycolysis.html In this reaction, the produced 2-diphosphoglycerate from the above step is dehydrated to Phosphoenolpyruvate with the help of the action of enolase (a dimer with identical sub-units) and requires metal ions, Magnesium or Zinc ions, that act as the enzyme’s co-factor. So, it transfers the phosphate group from carbon-3 to carbon-2 of the molecule. 2. The individual reactions in glycolysis were determined during the first part of the 20th century. And, the mechanism decelerates when there is excess/enough ATP. For it’s a conversion from glucose-6-phosphate to fructose-6-phosphate, an enzyme is involved, named “phosphohexos isomerase”. From the first process, we got the produced  Glucose-6-phosphate. The preparatory stage, also known as the link reaction, is right before the actual Krebs Cycle. Stage 2 does require oxygen and releases a large amount of energy. a) Pyruvate . First-stage process: Glycolysis – the conversion of a six-carbon carbohydrate to pyruvate with the generation of ATP. When plenty of oxygen is available, pyruvate is completely oxidized to carbon dioxide, with the release of much greater amounts of ATP through the combined actions of the citric acid cycle, the electron transport chain, and oxidative phosphorylation. This reaction occurs with the help of the enzyme phosphoglucose isomerase (PI). The glycolysis pathway occurs in the following stages: Stage 1. When glucose enters a cell, it is immediately phosphorylated to form glucose 6-phosphate, in the first reaction of phase I. Figure %: … The reaction stands, Phosphoenolpyruvate in addition to ADP and also hydrogen, in presence of pyruvate kinase and metal ions like Mg, Zn, etc produces the required product ketopyruvate. Some individuals with Type 2 diabetes do not produce enough insulin and thus do not respond to these oral medications; they must use insulin. Substrate -level phosphorylation, where a substrate of glycolysis donates a phosphate to ADP, occurs in two steps of the second-half of glycolysis to produce ATP. Here, in this further reaction, glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is turned into 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate after reacting properly. Glycolysis consists of an energy-requiring phase followed by an energy-releasing phase. Where does lactic acid fermentation occur in cells? Of the total calculated in Exercise 9a, determine the number of moles of ATP produced in each process. Unless otherwise noted, LibreTexts content is licensed by CC BY-NC-SA 3.0. In step 06, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is formed from Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. When the two phosphate groups are bonded to each other on the same carbon atom (for example, adenosine diphosphate [ADP]), the prefix is di. In this, a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose forming glucose,6-phosphate. Determine the amount of ATP produced by the oxidation of glucose in the presence and absence of oxygen. In this step and the reaction, Phosphoenolpyruvate is turned or converted into pyruvate, the required product. In the second step of glycolysis, an isomerase converts glucose-6-phosphate into one of its isomers, fructose-6-phosphate. Glycolysis can be divided into two phases: energy consuming (also called chemical priming) and energy yielding. Legal. • Reaction is coupled to the hydrolysis of an ATP to ADP and Pi. The enzyme that catalyzes the reaction is, In the next reaction, the phosphate group on 3-phosphoglycerate is transferred from the OH group of C3 to the OH group of C2, forming 2-phosphoglycerate in a reaction catalyzed by, The final step is irreversible and is the second reaction in which substrate-level phosphorylation occurs. There are two energy-conserving reactions of the process of glycolysis where step 06 is the first of them and step 09 is the second of them. It was the first metabolic pathway to be elucidated, in part because the participating enzymes are found in soluble form in the cell and are readily isolated and purified. This reaction has a mentionable role in the glycolytic pathway, which is a very critical contribution in the overall biochemistry. Steps of Glycolysis process 01: Phosphorylation of glucose : Steps of Glycolysis process 02: Isomerization/Conversion of Glucose-6-phosphate : Steps of Glycolysis process 03: Phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate : Steps of Glycolysis 04: Cleavage of fructose 1, 6-biphosphate: Steps of Glycolysis process 05: Triosephosphate isomerase : Steps of Glycolysis process 06: Oxidative Phosphorylation of Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate : Steps of Glycolysis process 07: Transfer from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP: Steps of Glycolysis process 08: Isomerization of 3-phosphoglycerate : Steps of Glycolysis process 09: Dehydration of 2-phosphoglycerate to Phosphoenolpyruvate : Steps of Glycolysis process 10: Transfer of phosphate from PEP to ADP : The net reaction to the steps of glycolysis process: Reactants Products and Equation of Glycolysis Process. The phosphate donor in this reaction is ATP, and the enzyme—which requires magnesium ions for its activity—is, The subsequent phosphorylation of fructose 6-phosphate to form fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is catalyzed by, Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate is enzymatically cleaved by, Isomerization of dihydroxyacetone phosphate into a second molecule of glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate is the final step in phase I. For every mole of glucose degraded, 2 mol of ATP are initially consumed and 4 mol of ATP are ultimately produced. The reaction mechanism is very similar to the reaction mechanism of step 2. In glycolysis, how many molecules of pyruvate are produced from one molecule of glucose? Glycolysis Pathway. In this process, ATP is regenerated, just like step 7. Therefore, 3-phosphoglycerate is rearranged in the presence of phosphoglycerate mutase and it’s metal ion co-factor, Magnesium, which leads to yield the product. That, helps the compound to change from fructose-6-phosphate to fructose 1,6-biphosphate. Glycolysis (Embden–Meyerhof pathway) is the sequence of reactions converting glucose (or glycogen) to pyruvate or lactate, with the production of ATP. For glycolysis to begin, a. glucose must enter the mitochondria. The enzyme, phosphoglycerate mutase is a dimer of identical subunits and is also phosphorylated at the start which is continuously regenerated by the reaction cycle. At this time, concentrate on the fact that glucose with six carbons is converted into two pyruvic acid molecules with three carbons each. 1. The new form is known as ketopyruvate. if oxygen is absent during the second stage of cellular respiration : a. fermentation b. the KRebs cycle begins c. the electron transport chain works more efficiently c the total amount of ATP that a cell gains for each glucose molecules depends on the presence of: a. water b. carbon dioxide c. oxygen Thus the affinity of the enzyme is lowered for the process. It is the leading cause of lower limb amputations in the United States. the pace of glycolysis. Other characteristic symptoms are constant hunger, weight loss, extreme thirst, and frequent urination because the kidneys excrete large amounts of water in an attempt to remove excess sugar from the blood. Glycolysis is the metabolic pathway that converts glucose C 6 H 12 O 6, into pyruvate, CH 3 COCOO − (pyruvic acid), and a hydrogen ion, H +.The free energy released in this process is used to form the high-energy molecules ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NADH (reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide). The conversion to lactate or ethanol under anaerobic conditions allows for the reoxidation of NADH to NAD+ in the absence of oxygen. The enzyme catalyzing this reaction is, BPG has a high-energy phosphate bond (Table \(\PageIndex{1}\)) joining a phosphate group to C1. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase is a tetramer of four identical subunits. Only one of the produced product from the above step remains constant in this step. d) Protein . Beginning with a single molecule of glucose and ending with glucose-6-phosphate, the first reaction requires the use of a hexokinase enzyme to break down an ATP, converting it to ADP, in order to phosphorylate the glucose molecule. Pyruvate is completely oxidized to carbon dioxide. This enzyme helps to dehydrate the produced product of the above step, 2-phosphoglycerate. One molecule of glucose (plus coenzymes and inorganic phosphate) makes two molecules of pyruvate (or pyruvic acid) and two molecules of ATP. How many ATPs are produced in fermentation. We begin to perspire to dissipate some of that heat. The enzyme that catalyzes or speeds the reaction is named ‘glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase’. 3. • Reaction 4: fructose-1,6-bisphosphate is split into 2 3-carbon molecules, one aldehyde and one ketone: dihyroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GAP). For some people who are overweight, losing weight is sufficient to bring their blood sugar level into the normal range, after which medication is not required if they exercise regularly and eat wisely. Thus anaerobic cells extract only a very small fraction of the total energy of the glucose molecule. In stage II of catabolism, the metabolic pathway known as glycolysis converts glucose into two molecules of pyruvate (a three-carbon compound with three carbon atoms) with the corresponding production of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). In this, a phosphate group is transferred from ATP to glucose forming glucose,6-phosphate. In this reaction, oxidative phosphorylation is joined to electron transport, so it is known as respiratory-chain phosphorylation. The complete oxidation (catabolism) of glucose typically involves three stages. It increases the risk of having a heart attack or stroke by two to four times. Here, each of the moles of the enzyme consists of 4 moles of NAD+. Stage 2 We also acknowledge previous National Science Foundation support under grant numbers 1246120, 1525057, and 1413739. The enzyme that facilitates or catalyzes the reaction is known as phosphoglycerate mutase. In vertebrates, pyruvate is converted to lactate, while other organisms, such as yeast, convert pyruvate to ethanol and carbon dioxide. The reaction that is facilitated above is just another example of the substrate-level phosphorylation of glycolysis. A phosphate group is added to glucose in the cell cytoplasm, by the action of enzyme hexokinase. The eight steps of the cycle are a series of redox, dehydration, hydration, and decarboxylation reactions that produce two carbon dioxide molecules, one GTP/ATP, and reduced forms of NADH and FADH2. The reaction flows in either direction, making the condition reversible. Step 3. The Cleavage between C-3 and C-4 depends on the presence of the Carbonyl group in the reaction of the process of glycolysis, in this step. The net energy release in glycolysis is a result of two molecules of glyceraldehyde-3- phosphate entering the second half of glycolysis where they are converted to pyruvic acid. Due to the change, it turns into a five-membered ring structure. Missed the LibreFest? preparatory phase and the last 5 0f these steps are called payoff phase or energy-conserving stage. Phosphoglycerate kinase requires a divalent metal ion like Magnesium, Zinc, etc, acting as co-factor to conduct any reaction. Substrate -level phosphorylation, where a substrate of glycolysis donates a phosphate to ADP, occurs in two steps of the second-half of glycolysis to produce ATP. There are two types of diabetes. Here, in this reaction ATP is generated, which has been produced in the process of glycolysis for the first time. Meanwhile, they have developed a simple blood test capable of predicting who will develop Type 1 diabetes several years before the disease becomes apparent. The glucose is a six-membered ring structure. It is … Instead, brain and muscle cells use a transport mechanism that passes electrons from the cytoplasmic NADH through the membrane to flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) molecules inside the mitochondria, forming reduced flavin adenine dinucleotide (FADH2), which then feeds the electrons into the electron transport chain. In the absence of oxygen, pyruvate is converted to lactate, and NADH is reoxidized to NAD+. Because insulin is a protein that is readily digested in the small intestine, it cannot be taken orally and must be injected at least once a day. Have questions or comments? Thus, glucose-6-phosphate is formed in the process. The reaction that the enzyme facilitates is irreversible. A, C, D, and E. Carbon fixation uses the ATP/NADPH produced during light reactions to convert CO2 and H2O into useful sources of energy (carbohydrates). In the reaction, energy loss is happening in the form of heat. But glucose hasn’t completely turned into pyruvate yet. Similarly, in Stage II, redox reactions occur, energy is conserved in the form of ATP, and two molecules of pyruvate are formed. Although medical science has made significant progress against diabetes , it continues to be a major health threat. Unlike glycolysis, the citric acid cycle is a closed loop: the last part of the pathway regenerates the compound used in the first step. (3) transfer of a hydride ion to NAD, forming NADH. The individual reactions in glycolysis were determined during the first part of the 20th century. The process of carbon fixation begins with which of the following reactants: select all that apply. During the preparatory phase, each 6-carbon glucose molecule is broken into two 3-carbon molecules. In step 06, 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate is formed from Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. In the sequential reactions of glycolysis, three types of chemical transformations are particularly noteworthy: (1) degradation of the carbon skeleton of glucose to yield pyruvate; (2) phosphorylation of ADP to ATP by compounds with high phosphoryl group transfer potential, formed during glycolysis; and. Problem : What class of metabolic reaction is catalyzed by phosphoglucose isomerase in the second step of glycolysis? 5. It occurs chiefly in the soluble part of the cytoplasm (i.e., cytosol), rather than being associated with mitochondria or other organelles. Hexokinase requires Mg or any other metal ions from its activity, just like all other kinases. Glycolysis is the first step in the breakdown of glucose to extract energy for cellular metabolism. ... Where do the reactions of glycolysis occur in a eukaryotic cell? Watch the recordings here on Youtube! In other words, the energy which is released through oxidation is conserved by the coupled formation of ATP, ADP, and Pi. The first phase is the energy-consuming phase, so it requires two ATP molecules to start the reaction for each molecule of glucose.However, the end of the reaction produces four ATPs, resulting in a net gain of two ATP energy molecules. This is the last step of glycolysis. 18.4: Stage II of Carbohydrate Catabolism, [ "article:topic", "showtoc:no", "license:ccbyncsa", "program:hidden" ], https://chem.libretexts.org/@app/auth/3/login?returnto=https%3A%2F%2Fchem.libretexts.org%2FCourses%2FSacramento_City_College%2FSCC%253A_Chem_309_-_General_Organic_and_Biochemistry_(Bennett)%2FText%2F18%253A_Metabolism%2F18.4%253A_Stage_II_of_Carbohydrate_Catabolism, information contact us at info@libretexts.org, status page at https://status.libretexts.org, fructose 6-phosphate → fructose 1,6-bisphosphate, yields 2–3 mol ATP per NADH (depending on tissue). Calculate the number of moles of ATP produced by the aerobic oxidation of 1 mol of glucose in a liver cell. Atoms of Mg^2+ helps to shield the negative charges produced from the phosphate groups from the ATP molecule.

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